Read the instruction Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Read the instruction - Coursework Example The territory that is not accepting immediate sunlight encounters winter. The phases of the moon correlate with the Earth and sun position. These stages incorporate new moon, where a large part of the moon confronting Earth is dull thus, one cannot see the moon from Earth because the sun is not lighting the side of the moon. The second stage is waxing sickle moon where light starts to enlighten the moon could be seen on the right, and the bright part is beginning to get greater. The third stage is the first quarter moon where 50% of the part of the moon confronting Earth is lighted on the right side. We have a full moon where a whole a large portion of the moon confronting Earth is lighted with completely lit loop. Disappearing gibbous is an alternate type of moon stages with three-quarters of the moon confronting the Earth is lighted on the left side. Last quarter moon is the large part of the piece of the moon confronting Earth is lighted on the left side. Finally, we have got fading sickle moon whereas the measure of light on the moon diminishes, we ag ain see a little piece, yet this time it is on the left (Spiller, 13-17). The Earth is among the nine planets that spin around the sun and make up the earths planetary group. It is around 150 million kilometers from the sun. The Earth that is characterized by dynamic surface that is always showing signs of change. The moon is a little rough satellite of Earth, having around one-quarter the distance across of the Earth and one-eighth its mass. The sun is a standard size yellow star of hydrogen gas that serves as the inside of our earths planetary society and as our wellspring of hotness and light. It is around 110 times the measurement of Earth and gives or takes 4.6 billion years of

Employee Resourcing Essay Example for Free

Employee Resourcing Essay Edwards, Scott and Raju (p. 71, 2003) have defined the term recruitment as â€Å"organizational practices and policies developed for the primary purpose of motivating applicants to apply, remain in the candidate pool, and accept offers. † Recruitment has been traditionally considered to have a minor role in the hiring process. Earlier the term recruitment to the hiring managers was primarily a means to indentify and use the sources, for instance the print media, which would give the maximum output in terms of applications from promising candidates. The importance of recruitment has increased multi-fold in recent times. This has been due to trends in 1990s like the changes in market which has necessitated a need for a large work force of specialized labors, and the internet which has given a wide platform for both the recruiters and job searchers to come in contact with each other (Edwards, Scott and Raju, p. 71, 2003). As a result of these trends the organizations have come to a scenario that not many people might apply when a job is posted. Even when the organization has selected a candidate it can no longer be assumed that they would be accepting these offers. Hence, there is an increasing awareness among people who take care of a company’s recruitment that the process covers far more than merely looking out for sources where the advertisements for job openings are to be put. This report gives an overview of the recruitment trends and selection practices in recent times in UK, the factors impacting these trends and selection practices in the country. Recruitment trends in UK in recent times The recruitment practices of organizations in UK have seen a drastic change in the recent times. Various practices and conditions are seen to exist in the organizations these days, which were not present a few decades ago like provision of creches, job-sharing, part-time work, and home-working. There is also a lot of stress on gender equality by the various companies. For instance, banks are seen to be the pioneers in devising various schemes to hire and retain women. Another of these trends is also to review policies such as those which used to encourage early retirement based on various conditions (Hendry, p. 42, 1995). There have been some additional schemes like performance related pays, which brought about the appraisal management system to fore. The trends for various organizations in UK is to use systems like the 360 feedback system for performance related pays, to motivate their employees so that they stay and work with the company and see this translated to an increase in the pay packages (Anderson, p. 130, 2005). Internet boom has been seen to impact all the aspects of businesses. Recruitment is no exception, and has seen a major change in the way companies recruit people. The trend to adopt internet as a means to recruit people, has also seen in face of the increasing number of companies looking to recruit people. The ease of finding people has increased as the companies can now access databases of people living in far off places in a short time. The online recruitment activity in UK increased by 30% for August 2007, from last year August 2006 (Monster, p. 1, 2007) For the managerial vacancies, the trend is that the vacancies are filled from the internal labor market while the senior management positions are as likely filled internally as externally. This trend means that on the supply side there has been an increase in new entrants in the labor market while on the demand side the organizations have a need for new managerial recruits. Selection Practices in UK in recent times Swift and Robertson (2000) cite several surveys conducted for selection practices to point out that the employers use a wide range of selection techniques depending upon the type of jobs for which the people are being recruited. They also said that the survey showed that no one method for selection was used as a standardized or stand-alone technique in small, middle, and even large sized corporations. The most used current selection practices were found to be application forms, interviews with single interviewer, panel interviewers, personality tests, references, ability tests, selection centers, CVs, and group selection centers. Despite the many reports of unreliability and invalidity, traditional selection methods of interview, application form and references are the most popular selection practices used. Of these, personal interviews are considered to be the most widely criticized method of selection, and the third most popular toll behind reference checking and application forms. The more sophisticated techniques like the assignment centers and psychological testing are relatively less used in UK. Though there has been a rise in the number of psychometric tests used by large sized corporations while selecting new recruits, the traditional methods are still the most common tools for selection (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley, p. 60, 2004). Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley (2004) also point out that there has been a rise in the flexible working practices in UK, in particular the non-standard contracts. There has been a rise in flexible contracts related to salary packages like sharing profits, introduction of performance incentive and also flexibility in the working hours. Changing environment in UK in the last few decades Organizations in UK faced the impact of the economic changes that occurred in 1980s through the 1990s. There were changes in the economic environment, labor law, government labor market policy, demographic changes and also the political climate, all of which had an impact on the organizations and hence their personnel management policies. There was a severe recession of 1980-81, followed by a period of growth till the early 1990s and again a slump in the last quarter of 1990s when the economic growth ceased (Hendry, p. 23, 1995). Due to the recession in the country there was a need for bringing in more foreign currency, hence imports became cheaper and foreign firms were drawn to the UK market. All of these brought about a collapse in the manufacturing sector which could not keep up with the measures taken by the government to bring up the recession. The industries began to restructure and this brought about the internationalization of various firms due to acquisitions and mergers (Hendry, p. 25, 1995). The trend for internationalization was present in UK but was chiefly restricted to Europe both in terms of trade and movement of capital. But the 1980s and 1990s saw the companies expand overseas in other countries to explore newer market and / or use cheaper labor due to the inherently tight labor market (Hendry, p. 27, 1995). There were other changes for instance the demographic and social changes brought about by the education system, which meant that more people were trained in higher education, and hence the labor force fell sharply through the 1980s. However, the proportion of women entering the labor market started to rise. Politically too UK saw marked changes as the Thatcher government gave way to new governments and different work related policies as well as the overall policies (Hendry, p. 40, 1995). Effects of External Environment on Labor Markets All the changes in the UK environment affected the personnel management practices by the organizations. The section above gave a brief on some of the major environment changes while this section would be giving the impact of the changes on the labor market and the next section would give the corresponding consequences in the recruitment and selection process. The collapse of the industrial segment in UK had far reaching impacts on the labor market. There was large scale unemployment which was well over 3 million for almost five years, with large regional imbalances. There were forced redundancies and many of the units were closed down. This made the companies look out for increased measures in productivity by using flexible working practices. This also led to the sharp demarcations between the various levels of employees. The slump led to internationalization in two ways. First the people in the middle class who were traditionally the labors increasingly sent their offspring to universities for higher studies. This led to an increase in the number of people qualified tor white collar and professional jobs, and the number of labors decreased. Organizations in UK hence started looking to countries in Asia and Africa for filling this labor gap. There were also direct acquisitions which led to foreign companies acquiring stakes in UK companies, which led to internationalization. The internationalization brought people from different cultures in contact with each other on regular basis. This meant that the people needed to be culturally conditioned to blend in easily with the increasingly changing work environment. The increase in the number of women in the industry at various levels brought about massive changes in the working culture of the organizations. There were issues like employee safety and newer incentives were introduced to attract employees like facilities of creches, providing pick-up and drop facilities. Effects of External Environment on Recruitment Process The labor market in UK has traditionally being tight due to the reasons outlined above. The market was affected due to two important events foot-and-mouth disease and 9/11 crisis. These events brought about crisis in the financial markets, a fall in tourism and other related activities, thus increasing the unemployment. However, in spite of these changes the labor market remains a challenge for recruiters in terms of recruitment and selection (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley, p. 48, 2004). The recruiters need to attract people to work in their organizations, which is the first important step. The second step is to follow a rigid but effective selection process which would ensure that the right people have been selected to work in the company. Recruitment and selection process are seen to be the most important functions of Human Resource Management process. This is because an effective recruitment and selection process ensures an efficient labor force while a poor one might have negative effects to the company’s productivity which are long lasting. The companies prefer that their employees are sources both internally and externally, so that the internal employees are motivated and fresh blood is brought into the company which is necessary for innovation. The rise in technology especially the internet has seen to it that the companies can have a diverse work force. The large companies have also used software technologies to use databases to keep track of their employees for checking their performance levels which would air the process of internal recruitment. UK companies traditionally preferred to fill their positions internally especially for managerial recruitments, though this is changing in the face of internationalization. Various organizations are also seen to improve the process of re-training and provide attractive incentives like performance related packages for recruiting and retaining employees (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley, p. 0, 2004). Effects of External Environment on Selection Process After potential candidates apply for the position, the selection process must ensure that the most promising candidates are selected for the positions. This is again a challenge to the recruiters because of the increasing stress laid on the employees to excel not only in their job but also added skills like team-spirit and adapting to change. Many of the positions require that the candidate must be comfortable for working in newer locations, which was traditionally limited to people in the sales and marketing department. In addition, the potential candidates must also be abreast with the fast changing technological environment, and be able to cope up with it. All these must be the elements of the selection process, which means a high burden for people designing the process to ensure only the right candidates, are selected (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley, p. 60, 2004). As is already mentioned above, personal interview though is the most criticized, is still the most preferred by recruiters in UK. The reason for this is probably the importance the company people give to personal judgment. With the increasing number of people coming from different regions and countries, references and applications are considered to be the most important tools in the selection process. The reference checking is done with due diligence and the responses are always recorded. In many cases, the companies also go in for reference checking by employing private agencies to check up on the potential candidate. Application forms are of course the necessary input for any further steps in the selection process (Brewster, Mayrhofer and Morley, p. 60, 2004).

Roses Journey Upon the Ship of Dreams :: Creative Writing Titanic History Essays

Rose’s Journey Upon the Ship of Dreams My journey started when I saw a report on the television. The report was about a picture which the ocean archaeologist’s found. The picture was of me, not now a course but when I was a young teenager. Titanic researchers with the ocean archaeologists were looking for a ruby which was worn by someone on the titanic, they’d been looking for 20 years but now they’d come across a picture of a lady wearing it around her neck. They had found the picture miles under the ocean, they were showing there founding’s on TV. I just caught a little glimpse of the image on TV. I was ecstatic; I was so excited I thought I had lost that picture for ever but I was wrong. It was remarkable that the picture had been under water for nearly 100 years and it was still in good condition. I had to see it, for real. I phoned the helpline; a young man answered the phone there was lots of racket in the background but could here this young man speaking on top of it all, â€Å"hello how we can help you?† He asked. I replied by saying â€Å"I wanted to know if you have found the heart of the ocean yet?† He sounded quite surprised. â€Å"What’s your name?† he asked. â€Å"Rose Dawson† I responded. â€Å"Now, Rose Dawson you have me attention,† he uttered. â€Å"Now tell me who that lady in the picture is Rose?† he continue to questioned. â€Å"The lady in that picture is me!† I said. â€Å"That can’t be true, if it was, u must be over 100 years old† he claimed â€Å"Actually I’m 101 next month† I countered I was invited to the ship, not the titanic, but to the research ship. I stepped out of the helicopter. There were so many machines and so much noise and racket. There were people running about, It reminded me of that night when the ship hit the ice berg. I felt so vulnerable. I was also quite anxious to believe that I was here 100 years ago, when the titanic foundered. I could see the sights I saw that day, crossing my mind back and forth. It was like a time bomb had exploded in my head and I was remembering everything. The young man presented my room. It was so basic two beds and a window and a TV. I was sharing my room with my granddaughter who I didn’t think knew what was going on, she look confused. â€Å"Would like anything else Mrs. Dawson† the young man asked.

Spanking :: essays research papers

Does Spanking Lead Child Abuse?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Were you spanked as a child? Do you think spanking effected you? Every parent has been in a situation where a good spanking seems like the only way to put an end to little Junior’s temper tantrum. Parents use a number to reasons, some you may have heard, to use spanking as a form of discipline. They may say â€Å"Spare the rod and spoil the child.† Or â€Å"I was spanked and I turned out okey.† Even â€Å"Kids need spanking to show them who’s boss.† The issue I wish to present is whether or not spanking leads to a rise in child abuse and later violence. Do children who are spanked or physically punished see spanking as a violent act? Do they learn to see violence as an acceptable way to solve a problem? When parents spank their children are they guiding them or controlling them? Nancy Samalin, author of Love and Anger, believes that spanking is nothing more than a big person hitting a smaller person and it can do damage to your child’s conscious. â€Å"A child who obeys because of the fear of being spanked,† she explains â€Å"is most likely not to develop a sense of right or wrong without being policed by a more powerful authority figure.† (Samalin, p. 154). She believes that spanking the child you have not set an example that you want your child to follow in the future. New studies have shown that children who are abused by their parents physically, emotionally, or sexually grow up and become abusive parents themselves. Further studies have shown that children who are physically punished lack empathy and concern that helps them care for others. A public opinion poll conducted by the National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse in 1994 asked parents how they disciplined their children in the previous year. Denying privileges was used by 79 percent of the parents; confinement to a room was used by 59 percent; 49 percent spanked or hit their children; and 45 percent insulted or swore at their children. What was amazing about these statistics was that 51 percent did not spank their children. Now consider the rise in child abuse cases that has caused public-health officials scrambling for an explanation blaming spanking made sense. Trouble is, while spanking is down, child abuse is still up. Joan McCord, author of â€Å"Questioning the Value of Punishment,† believes that punishment in general is the reason for the increase in child abuse and violence.

Co-Occurring Disorders Essay

The co-occurring I chose is Schizophrenia and Alcohol Dependence, with the prevalence of Nicotine Dependence. Schizophrenia occurs in people from all cultures and all walks of life, and its characteristic symptoms are well recognized. Those symptoms include extreme oddities in perception, thinking, action, sense of self, and manner of relating to others. However, the hallmark of schizophrenia is a significant loss of contact with reality, referred to as psychosis. Taken from the DSM IV (Association, 2000), (pgs. 153-154) the criteria for schizophrenia are two or more of the following symptoms, present for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period, and lasting for six months are: Delusions. Hallucinations. Disorganized speech. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior. Negative symptoms. According to (Butcher & Mineka, 2010) (pg.458), â€Å"the vast majority of cases of schizophrenia begin in late adolescence and early childhood, although schizophrenia is sometimes found in children, such cases are rare. Schizophrenia tends to begin earlier in men than in women, usually between ages 20 and 24. The incidence of schizophrenia in women peaks during the same age period, but the peak is less marked than it is for men. Overall, the average age of onset of schizophrenia is around 25 years for men and around 29 years for women†. Alcohol Dependence is a state, psychic and usually also physical, resulting from alcohol use, and is characterized by behavioral and other responses that always include a compulsion to take alcohol on a continuous or periodic basis in order to experience its psychic effects, and sometimes to avoid the discomfort of its absence, tolerance may or may not be present. According to the DSM IV (Association, 2000), the  criteria for alcohol dependence are a tolerance as defined by: a need for markedly increased amounts of the substance to achieve intoxication or desired effect, and the markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of the substance. The symptoms of alcohol dependence are; Withdrawal syndrome. It is taken in larger amounts or over a longer period than was intended. Unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control substance use. A great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to obtain the substance. Alcohol and nicotine dependence are extremely common among patients with schizophrenia (Drake, 2001), almost half of schizophrenic patients have a substance use disorder during their lifetime. The rate is probably even greater among high-risk groups, such as young men with a history of violence or homelessness, and among patients in acute care settings. Alcohol abuse is correlated with poor concurrent adjustment and predictive of adverse outcomes such as higher rates of homelessness, hospitalization, and incarceration. There is a huge prevalence of nicotine dependence with this co-occurring disorder. Nicotine is the most common form of substance abuse in people with schizophrenia. According to the (National Institute of Health, 2013), people with schizophrenia are driven to smoke. They smoke at three times the rate of the general population. In the general adult population age 18 years or older, the reported rate of nicotine use is 25.9%, with a 12.8% increase within the past year. In people with schizophrenia there is a reported rate of use of nicotine of 60% – 90%, a 28.5% increase within the past year. In the general population the rate of use for alcohol in people age 18 years or older is 2.9% – 17.9%, a 5.1% increase within the past year. In schizophrenic patients alcohol use has gone up from 14 to 22 percent in the 1960’s and 1970’s, to 25 to 50 percent in the 1990’s. Within the past year the reported dependence for alcohol in schizophrenic patients has gone up from 43.1% to 65%. According to (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2013) assessment issues for this co-occurring disorder are: People wh o are experiencing symptoms of schizophrenia may put up resistance to help because they do not know that something is wrong, when in reality this can be a manifestation of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The symptoms of schizophrenia can be  mistaken for an individual being intoxicated. Many individuals with symptoms of schizophrenia isolate themselves from family and friends, and many are homeless, so they are not surrounded by a support system to get them to needed help. If the professional doing the assessment doesn’t have the individual’s previous mental health background, or their family’s mental health background, they won’t be able to properly assess the disorder. The traditional treatment modality for schizophrenia has been strictly focused on psychiatry and psychotropic drugs. However today professionals should be aware that there is evidence of increasing use of alcohol and drugs by persons with schizophrenia, and a dual diagnosis should be expected. Therefore, an accurate understanding of the role of substance use disorders in the client’s psychosis requires a multiple contact, longitudinal assessment. Both psychotic and substance use disorders tend to be chronic disorders with multiple relapses and remissions, supporting the need for long-term treatment. For clients with co-occurring disorders involving psychosis, a long-term integrative approach is imperative. Treatment practices that could be harmful or contradictive for individuals with co-occurring disorders are; Untrained or unqualified staff – (staff members, whether primarily from the substance abuse treatment or mental health fields, should be knowledgeable about both disorders and their treatments. Treating one disorder without treating the other – (mental health and addiction treatment systems often are separated. This situation may result in patients’ being treated at one location for addiction and at another for mental health disorders. Some mental health care facilities do not accept patients in medication-assisted treatment, forcing these patients to choose which disorder to treat. Also co-occurring disorders require individualized treatment approaches. It is usually best to address all of a patient’s disorders simultaneously because each can influence the other. The treatment approach for this co-occurring disorder should be a multi-disciplinary team approach. Special considerations should include an integrated approach, (a team working closely together, social worker, counselor or therapist, psychiatrist or mental health professional, and a medical doctor). There should also be: Available resources for crisis intervention. Treatment for schizophrenia and drug treatment. Rehabilitation (social and vocational training to help people with schizophrenia function better in their communities). Family education (people with schizophrenia are often discharged from the hospital into the care of their families. So it is important that family members know as much as possible about the disorder. With the help of a counselor, family members can learn coping strategies and problem solving skills). CBT (it helps patients with symptoms that don’t go away even when they take medications). Self-help groups (group members comfort and support each other; they know that others are facing the same problems, which can help everyone feel less isolated). Two treatment or community supports that are available in central Ohio are: Dublin Springs Treatment Center 7625 Hospital Drive Dublin, Ohio (614) 717-1800 www.dublinsprings.com Center for Innovative Practices Kent State University Kent, Ohio (330) 672-7917 www-dev.rags.kent.edu/cip Two local service providers that provide treatment for people with this co-occurring disorder are: Southeast Inc. 16 W. Long Street Columbus, Ohio (614) 225-0990 www.southeastinc.com Columbus Area Integrated Health Services 1515 E. Broad Street Columbus, Ohio (614) 252-0711 interventionamerica.org The factors that will increase the likelihood that clients will participate in treatment are: Developing and using a therapeutic alliance to engage the client in treatment. Maintaining a recovery perspective. Managing countertransference. Monitoring psychiatric symptoms. Using supportive and empathic counseling. Employing culturally appropriate methods. Increasing structure and support. Encouraging family support and providing counseling and education. Three potential barriers that could prevent a person from taking advantage of  treatment and/or supports are: Inaccessibility or funding for treatment (some mental health centers do not offer integrated treatment. Because of the lack of insurance and Medicaid cutbacks some people do not have access to funding for treatment. Also Legislators need to re-appropriate funding for treatment. However, agencies that are funded by ADAMH provide 100% funding for treatment. Ex. Southeast Inc.). Homelessness (many individuals who suffer from this disorder isolate themselves from family and friends, so they don’t have a support system to get them to help when their symptoms are presenting. Many are incarcerated and there is no mental health background for them, or they are jailed because the symptoms of schizophrenia are similar to intoxication). Staff who are undertrained in the symptoms of this co-occurring disorder. Involvement of family or significant others are very important in treatment and should be offered counseling to help them with coping strategies and problem-solving skills, they should also be offered education about the disorder. Additional information about this co-occurring disorder pertains to the use of nicotine; (smoking may make anti-psychotic drugs less effective, and quitting smoking is very difficult because nicotine withdrawal may cause these individuals psychotic symptoms to get worse for a while. References Association, A. P. (2000). DSM, IV. In Diagnostic Criteria (pp. 153-154). Arlington: American Psychiatric Association. Butcher, J. N., & Mineka, S. H. (2010). Abnormal Behavior. Boston: Pearson Publishing Co. Drake, R. E. (2001, August 17). Treating Substance Abuse Among Patients With Schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, pp. 71-83. National Institute of Health. (2013, October 12). Retrieved from National Institute of Mental Health: www.nimh.nih.gov Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2013, September 15). Retrieved from SAMHSA: www.samhsa.gov

Voyager System essays

Voyager System essays This report contents information about the Voyager System used by the Access Services Department of Harvey A. Andruss Library. The computerized system function as an integrated library animation that depends on a network support service. It is linked to a main server in Shippensburg. This server enables the library to share information with the seven Pennsylvania state universities. So, the students, staffs, faculties and Pennsylvania residences can have access to educational materials. The focuses of the report are to describe the configuration of the voyager system and its operations, not forgetting the possible suggestion to improve the system. The Harvey A. Andruss Library is essentially responsible to provide services in the form of adequate resources of information. It mainly consists of over 300,000 volumes of Library collection within the range of Governmental Reports to periodical data. In addition to the general collection, the library has several hundreds periodical online and on its shell. For example, it has periodical of journals and magazines. They are updated as frequent as possible to issue that the information are current. Moreover, it has been estimated that the Library obtains close to 1700 current periodicals but hold stock of several thousands more. Anybody can have access to these periodical by checking the periodical holding list. This List is available to users on the computer stations, the Circulation Desk or the Reference Desk. Some of the documents are reserved on microfilm. The most common form of documents in this category is the congressional Records. For example, the American statistical Index and other form of information sources in the Library are the news bank, Newspapers, reserves materials, oversize books, career guidance collection, musical scores, sound recordings and Loan period. The organization and maintenance of the Library information are handled by the voyager system. The voyager sys...

Online Course Proposal Essay Example

Online Course Proposal Essay Example Online Course Proposal Essay Online Course Proposal Essay Online Course Proposal BY ajones7874 Global Citizenship Across the Curriculum Chapter 1 Draft Andrea Peterson-Jones October 21, 2013 California State University East Bay Background In the not so distant past, citizenship or civics education in the United States embraced an assimilation ideology, focused on Anglo-protestant conformity effectively eradicating the cultures and languages of diverse groups. During assimilation, when members of identifiable racial groups began to acquired the language and culture of the Anglo mainstream, they were often denied inclusion and ull participation in the community because of their racial characteristics. Anglo- Saxon Protestant tradition was for two centuries, and in crucial respects still is, the dominant influence on American culture and society(Schlesinger, 1992, p. 28). This approach to civic education created conflict, anxiety, demoralization, and resentment in those forced to disconnect from their culture and belief systems. Today, the term Civics is rarely used, having been replaced with Global Education or Global Citizenship. In an ever increasing interdependent world, educators are emonstrating a growing interest in educating for global citizenship. Because of growing ethnic, cultural, racial, language and religious diversity throughout the world, global citizenship education is imperative to properly prepare students to function effectively in the 21st century Global Economy. Citizens in this century need the knowledge, attitudes, and skills required to function not only in their own cultural community, but beyond cultural borders and divides. As educators, it becomes our responsibility to incorporate student strategies for acquiring these skills into our everyday curriculum. According to Cushner and Brennan (2007), cultural competence is required to be an effective educator. Teachers who are culturally competent, they argue, understand cultural traditions that extend beyond the borders of the United States, can communicate across cultures, and have the expertise to prepare learners for living and working in the global community ( p. 10). We live in one of the worlds most diverse countries, and we are experiencing a time of dramatic change. We must recognize the rapid pace of globalization and the increasing competition and changing workplace that our Nations graduates will face in their future. Nussbaum, 1997) The source of Americas prosperity has never been merely how ably we accumulate weal tn, out now well we educate our people . Inls nas never Deen more true than it is today. In a 21st-century world where Jobs can be shipped wherever theres an Internet connection, where a child born in Dallas is now competing with a child in New Delhi, where your best Job qualification is not what you do, but what you know. Education is no longer Just a pathway to opportunity and success, its a prerequisite for success. Our children will compete for Jobs in a global economy that oo many of our schools do not prepare them for. In a global economy where the most valuable skill you can sell is your knowledge, a good education is no longer Just a pathway to opportunity it is a prerequisite. The world is changing rapidly. American students need to graduate from school not only ready for college, but globally competent. We must prepare the rising generation to connect, compete and cooperate with their peers around the world. This is a prescription for economic decline, because we know the countries that out-teach us today will out-compete us tomorrow. President Barack Obama, 2010 Needs Statement Americas K-12 educational system must graduate students who are well prepared in not only literature, mathematics and science, but also in their knowledge and understanding of global issues, foreign languages and world cultures (Lewin Schattle, 2009) . Rapid globalization and increasing competition in a changing workplace are the realities graduates will face in their future. According to Altinay and Brookings Institution (2007) students in their final years of high school are not being offered enough opportunities in the conventional curriculum to develop those ard and soft skills that they will need to meet the challenges already present in the world. Americas future economic strength and national security depend on its ability to prepare young people to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century and be leaders in the global society (Olson, Evans, Shoenberg, 2007). The course proposed, Global Citizenship Across the Curriculum, is designed to provide educators from all grade levels and disciplines, practical methodologies for the global enrichment of their courses (K-12), and evaluation strategies which ensure authentic cross-cultural experiences (Olson, Evans, Shoenberg, 2007). The course content contains opportunities for educators to connect collaborate with other educators around the globe using various technologies including Skype in the classroom. Participants are introduced to pedagogies that help students build critical thinking and problem- solving skills through interactions with global issues and the perspectives of the people experiencing them. (Nussbaum, 1997) . When educators learn best practice methodologies to instill leadership skills in their students, they help them construct avenues for responding to global conflict, simultaneously developing their cross- ultural competency as 21st Century critical thinkers and leaders. Course participants learn ways to infuse their curriculum with global project-based learning experiences that help them develop the global competence they need for success in a global economy. They learn to implement student-driven learning pedagogies and utilize e-technologies to build authentic, humanizing connections between their students and the world (Lewin Schattle, 2009). Global Citizenship Across the Curriculum is delivered 100% online and the internet serves as a fundamental learnlng, researcn, ana communlcatlons tool Tor teacners ana students Ine DeneTlts of distance learning become evident as course participants apply newly learned skills using online tools and collaborative forums to confront and reflect on a variety of global issues. Graduates leave the course with an expanded knowledge base to actively engage students and articulate global citizenship and real world skills across the curriculum. Key Definitions Assimilation: to cause (a person or group) to become part of a different society, country, etc. Anglo-Saxon: a person whose ancestors were English. Cross-cultural: dealing with or offering comparison between two or more different cultures or cultural areas . -Technologies: the use of the internet in industry, engineering, etc. , to invent useful things or to solve problems. Global Citizenship: aims to empower pupils to lead their own actions with the knowledge and values that they have gained from learning about global issues. Ideology: a systematic body of concepts especially about human life or culture; a manner or the content of thinking characteristic of an individual, group, or culture; The integrated assertions, theories and aims that constitute a sociopolitical program. Pedagogy: the art, science, or profession of teaching young people. References Altinay, H. Brookings Institution (2010). The case for global civics. Washington, D. C: Brookings Institution, Global Economy and Development. Lewin, R. Schattle, H. (2009). The handbook of practice and research in study abroad: Higher education and the quest for global citizenship. New York: Routledge. Nussbaum, M. C. (1997). Cultivating humanity: A classical defense of reform in liberal education. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Olson, C. L. , Evans, R. , Shoenberg, R. E. (2007). At home in the world: Bridging the gap between internationalization and multicultural education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Clamoring and Clambering

Clamoring and Clambering Clamoring and Clambering Clamoring and Clambering By Maeve Maddox Paul Russell calls our attention to confusion between the verbs clamor [klÄÆ'mÉ™r] and clamber.[klÄÆ'mbÉ™r]. I just found the phrase F1s sponsors were clambering for a presence in the USA. One clamors for attention or, in this case, for a presence. Used as both noun and verb, clamor comes from Latin clamor, a shout. As a noun, clamor means Loud shouting or outcry, vociferation; esp. the excited outcry of vehement appeal, complaint, or opposition: commonly, but not always, implying a mingling of voices. As an intransitive verb, clamor means To make a clamour; to shout, or utter loud and continued cries or calls; to raise an outcry, make a noise or din of speech. Said of persons, animals, and instruments of noise. Clamber, on the other hand, is related to the verb climb. It means To climb by catching hold with hands and feet; to creep or crawl up (or down); to climb with difficulty and effort. Speakers who apparently make no distinction in the pronunciation of the the two words substitute clamber for clamor in contexts intended to convey the idea that people are making an outcry over something. As the most outspoken yoga advocates clamber for more recognition in the scientific community, it is they who become so much more sure of their own beliefs. The Girl Scout troops that cover Celina, Prosper and Frisco schools are clambering for members this year. As we mentioned in our last email, after our speech at Mike’s event, we were surrounded by rings of people clambering for  more information†¦ There are many voices out there today, each one clambering for our attention. She was making a nice little profit on it and kept selling stuff she wasnt planning on it because people were clambering for more. Its not a surprise that Europeans and Americans are clambering for Asian elements. Even if one pronounces both words as /klÄÆ'mÉ™r/, its easy to choose the correct one. Try substituting the word climb or call and see which one makes more sense: There are many voices out there today, each one climbing for our attention. There are many voices out there today, each one calling for our attention. If climb makes sense in the context, clamber is the word you want. If call makes more sense, clamor is the word you want. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Cost-Effective vs. Cost-EfficientHow to Play HQ Words: Cheats, Tips and Tricks5 Ways to Reduce Use of Prepositions

Answers to questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Answers to questions - Essay Example In Europe cities, the urban social world is a set of compartments in which most of the people in one compartment encompass no contact with the person in the other compartment. This means that the social life in the region is scrappy. However, advantages of the urban life are weighed against estrangement issues, stress, increased daily costs, and negative social aspects. This comes because of marginalization. From these classical theories, it is clear that people travel to the cities in search of new fortunes, and the social mobility. Industries that provide jobs and exchange in the capital are concentrated in the urban areas, which contribute much into this chief shift from the rural areas. The foreign money flows in a country through the ports and banking systems. In within the urban areas, people move to different within a short period due to proximity to these jobs and other activities. As a result, interaction between these people becomes difficulty since most of the persons are concentrated on their development issues. This has caused a significant stress to these dwellers because they have greater activity in certain areas while their brains are involved negative moods. On the view of the principal division in the social contact, many issues are in the verge of breaking up like the mental illness, such as schizophrenia, anxiety, and mood disorders. Therefore, these main shifts and little or no contacts render the social life in cities cold and unemotional (Shannon, Kleniewski & Cross, 1991). 2. Coalition The growth coalition is an organization that ensures a level playing field between the real estate development and the citizen in the urban area. The main aim is to promote a vibrant and a sustainable growth as well as enhancing the relationship. Growth coalition is observed in two dimensions, through the national power structure and the local power structure. The local power structures are land based growth coalitions, which seek to intensify the land us e. These structures are opposed by neighborhoods they raid or pollute, and by environmentalists. However, the land based growth coalition has raised a conflict between the growth elites and the neighbors on the growth conditions of increasing rents. This makes the land based structure to take interest that profit them from the increase of the land use. They see their future as uniting link because of common desires to increase their individual packages. Concentrations in the no decent houses are for h low income earners, which is a pressure to the local growth coalition. These growth coalitions face oppositions when it affects neighborhoods or the environment through the high prices, new open ways, the industrial pollution, noise among other factors. This leaves the poor mostly affected in the growth coalitions. In response to this, we should encourage the liberal regimes to expand their opportunities, employment, and services for the poor without challenging the growth coalitions. This will help to increase the developments. Through empowering, the poor and the minority for affordable housing will help much in the development. Other factors that will step up the growth is by acquiring resources to aid in the local government, promote the traditional growth coalitions, as well as the slashed social services. This growth will promote in generating jobs and tax revenues if properly managed (Shannon,

Business Strategy Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Strategy Analysis - Essay Example Grand Canyon University has a wide range of product offerings including bachelors, masters, and doctoral programs totaling over 100 in business, education, liberal arts, nursing and health, recreation and sports, among other areas of fast growing careers. Certifications and other credits are also offered at the university. Evening, fulltime, part-time, and online are some of the flexibilities allowed in the programs offered at GCU. GCU mission statement reads, â€Å"Grand Canyon University prepares learners to become global citizens, critical thinkers, effective communicators, and responsible leaders by providing an academically challenging, values-based curriculum from the context of our Christian heritage† (GCU, 2014). In 2013, GCU had net revenue of $598,335 and a net income of $ 88,711 with the earnings per common share $ 1.98 and $ 1.92 for basic and diluted shares showing a good financial performance for a higher education providing institution. Global operations are in form of the enrolment of students from beyond United States either physically in the Phoenix main campus and other campuses or through the online learning system at the University. A SWOT analysis of GCU shows that the strengths of GCU include offering a faith based product, the university has strong online presence that spans a large demographic, maintenance of regional accreditation, and a high profit margin that cushions the university at hard times as demonstrated by the 2008 recession (Grand Canyon University,  2014). However, GCU has some weaknesses including an inability to provide excellent customer service through all university levels especially on online classrooms. Other weaknesses include poor education at financial literacy by the staff leading to loss of grants by students. The opportunities available to the university include increasing

Nature of management and new technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nature of management and new technology - Essay Example To begin with, management has to co-create value with customers (Hill & Jones 2009, p. 96). This is because organizations are existing an age whereby consumers possess considerable information about given products and services. Organizations should utilize this awareness to collaborate with customers on the creation of products. In the current set up, organizations can use various tools in communicating with customers. For instance, the e-mail messaging system is helpful in sending information and receiving immediate feedback In addition, the management will consider an open administration framework. Innovation in communication media has given rise to various tools, which can be employed for correspondence (Arthur 2009, P. 56). This allows the enlargement of departments since it is easy to have correspondence among a large group of people. The management has become more visible to employees, as managements can easily utilize communication applications such as WhatsApp groups in communicating information to a large group of individuals simultaneously. It also becomes easy to immediately receive feedback from a corresponding number of people. More essentially, managements will have to form collaborative partnerships with stakeholders in suppliers in achieving

Marriage and the Family Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marriage and the Family - Personal Statement Example The solution that the educator that I interviewed presented was simply the desire of the parents to take some time off their careers in order to stay longer at home and monitor the development of their children. It is not always good to depend on the nannies and tutors to preside over the learning of their children. The parents have to be committed to regularly be there when their children needs them. The counselor that I interviewed mentioned that there are three fundamental procedures of decision-making in the present day families: the top-down method, the democratic method, and the subculture method. Top-down or implemented decision-making normally happens in the family structure of disoriented families, because the heads of these families do not know that it normally leads in bad developments that are hard to manage, even though they may be effortless to tell to the members of the family (Napier 5). In short, they do not know that top-down methods may lead in forced compliance from the children for instance, but in reality they do not totally agree to it. As a solution to this problem, the counselor suggested that families implement the deliberate methods to decision-making which are hard and eat up a lot of time, but the dedication and trust to the development will be more effective than an altered family setting which decreases outputs and results. C. Opinion of the Social Worker The social worker that I interviewed mentioned that majority of the failed activities of families at present rely tremendously on the lack of interpersonal interaction and relationship among the family members. Bounded with a distorted objective, the control of developments at families is not always coordinated with the family members that will benefit or will immediately feel the impacts. Discussing the objective of development at families nowadays is not always important (Cherlin 6). As a solution to this problem, the social worker recommended that families should start to realize that interaction is the highly recommended way that the families must always use. If the family members can effectively communicate with each other, obtaining the trust of each other and managing a smooth relationship will always be easy to do, and this leads to a smooth flow of family functions. Personal Notes I believe that family is the most important treasure in the world. While it is true that families cannot be perfect all the time, the family members must always have the initiative to help each other grow and become united as one. Of course, the parents have to be role models in order for the children to follow. If the family stays together as one cohesive unit all then time, then problems no matter how they may be can be easily deflected and the family will be strong and firm with their support for each other. WORKS CITED Cherlin, Andrew. Public and Private Families: An Introduction. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages; 5th edition 2006 Lamanna, Mary Ann. Marriages & Families: Making

Comparing Art theory and Art work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Comparing Art theory and Art work - Essay Example This theory was initiated in the Romantic Movement when the individual was placed as the central point in art. Through this theory, artwork was seen as the unique portrayal of artists’ feelings and emotions. It said that good art is the one which successfully communicates the feelings of the artist with the audience. An artist becomes successful when he is able to express his feelings through his artwork (Knill 46). The theory has its weaknesses and is criticized since the Romantic Era. In today’s world, modern art is defined as a human activity in which one person uses different forms of art to convey his feelings to the others and influence them. This theory is well suited in the abstract art but not much in other forms of art. Somehow this theory restricts the artists to express their feelings and emotions through art rather than following the concept ‘art for art’s sake’ (Knill 56). The expressive theory had cultivated in the Romantic Movement in the late eighteenth century. There are three concepts of expressive theory that are associated with the movement: imagination, genius, and emotion. These three terms are believed by expressionists as key elements in any artwork. They believe that individuality is what makes an artists’ art recognizable and unique (Knill 76). The artist must portray his feelings through the art such as through paintings, music, or poems. The artwork is a platform for every artist to convey his inner feelings to the world. Objectivists argue that expressive theories are rather irrelevant as the artwork must focus on art not the artist. Expressionists continue to argue that an artwork is the complete depiction of the artists’ personality and an artist tends to create what best reflects his feelings (Knill 78). Psychologically also, an artist is able to create what is in his mind and what he truly believes in. This doesn’t only mean emotions and feelings, but also ideas

Marriage and the Family Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marriage and the Family - Personal Statement Example The solution that the educator that I interviewed presented was simply the desire of the parents to take some time off their careers in order to stay longer at home and monitor the development of their children. It is not always good to depend on the nannies and tutors to preside over the learning of their children. The parents have to be committed to regularly be there when their children needs them. The counselor that I interviewed mentioned that there are three fundamental procedures of decision-making in the present day families: the top-down method, the democratic method, and the subculture method. Top-down or implemented decision-making normally happens in the family structure of disoriented families, because the heads of these families do not know that it normally leads in bad developments that are hard to manage, even though they may be effortless to tell to the members of the family (Napier 5). In short, they do not know that top-down methods may lead in forced compliance from the children for instance, but in reality they do not totally agree to it. As a solution to this problem, the counselor suggested that families implement the deliberate methods to decision-making which are hard and eat up a lot of time, but the dedication and trust to the development will be more effective than an altered family setting which decreases outputs and results. C. Opinion of the Social Worker The social worker that I interviewed mentioned that majority of the failed activities of families at present rely tremendously on the lack of interpersonal interaction and relationship among the family members. Bounded with a distorted objective, the control of developments at families is not always coordinated with the family members that will benefit or will immediately feel the impacts. Discussing the objective of development at families nowadays is not always important (Cherlin 6). As a solution to this problem, the social worker recommended that families should start to realize that interaction is the highly recommended way that the families must always use. If the family members can effectively communicate with each other, obtaining the trust of each other and managing a smooth relationship will always be easy to do, and this leads to a smooth flow of family functions. Personal Notes I believe that family is the most important treasure in the world. While it is true that families cannot be perfect all the time, the family members must always have the initiative to help each other grow and become united as one. Of course, the parents have to be role models in order for the children to follow. If the family stays together as one cohesive unit all then time, then problems no matter how they may be can be easily deflected and the family will be strong and firm with their support for each other. WORKS CITED Cherlin, Andrew. Public and Private Families: An Introduction. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages; 5th edition 2006 Lamanna, Mary Ann. Marriages & Families: Making

What sources of information do learner use to get a skill outside of Essay

What sources of information do learner use to get a skill outside of the formal education system - Essay Example These sources of information often avail information to the learner although, at times the learner may be unconscious of it. These sources of information include personal learning experience, families, friends, information and communication technology, digital media, internet, community members among other sources. Acquiring a skill for doing a particular job from people experienced in that line is probably the best way of learning. For instance, interacting with people experienced in rock climbing can help one acquire the technique in the most effective way. Safety techniques for using build anchors use belay devices, use karabiners and quick draws for the beginners of rock climbing can best be learnt together with the experienced climbers who are experts. Also several exercises outside classroom can help one develop a particular skill. Thus several years of gymnastics improves one’s ability to practice yoga. Students may try new things and upon failure to achieve their set objectives, they get assistance from family members (Knight 14). Through family members, a student may acquire a unique skill through copying what the other members of the family do for instance, marrying a vegetarian partner or having a vegetarian parent can make one become vegetarian. Friends from work places or r esidential places can also help one acquire a particular skill. Therefore, doing and attempting to do, forms the basis of a student’s natural acquisition of skills (Volpe 149). Primarily, parents are regarded as the primary educators to their children. For instance, living with a deaf parent can help one acquire the skills of using sign languages (Juul 108). Through a strengthened relationship between the learner and the parents, a learner acquire relevant information that help him impact relevant skill outside classrooms. Parents avail this relevant information to the learners through story telling in the form of narratives, spiritual teachings

Real GDP, unemployment rate Essay Example for Free

Real GDP, unemployment rate Essay Economic indicators measure and characterize the current state of economy. Unemployment rate, inflation rate, real GDP, and oil price per barrel form the general economic picture and show further directions of economic policies and tactics. â€Å"Real GDP is gross domestic product in constant dollars. In other words, real GDP is a nation’s total output of goods and services, adjusted for price changes† (Picker, 2007). Real GDP is often compared to nominal GDP which is always expressed in current dollars. In the third quarter of 2007, real GDP equaled to 11658. 9 billion of constant dollars, having increased 4. 9 percent as compared to the second quarter of 2007. Gross private domestic investment is one of the basic components of real GDP. In 2007, gross private domestic investment also increased to reach 1859. 9 billion dollars (GPO Access, 2008). The graph shows the historical fluctuations of real GDP in the United States: the beginning of 2007 was marked by the greatest real GDP decrease since 2005. The decrease of real GDP in the second half of 2006 indicates the start of economic recession in the United States. The unemployment rate is â€Å"the number of unemployed as a percent of the labor force† (Picker, 2007). In March, the U. S. economy was characterized by 5. 1% unemployment rate (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). Normally, unemployment rates should not exceed 6 percent. Thus, unemployment rates in the U. S. are kept within the reasonable limits. However, the chart shows the slight but continuous unemployment rate increase since the beginning of 2007. These trends create a picture of recession in the American economy. Inflation rate shows the increase of prices for consumer goods and services, and is counted on a yearly basis (Picker, 2007). Inflation rates are basically measured with the help of Consumer Price Index (CPI); CPI calculates the value of consumer goods and services basket which households purchase (Picker, 2007). The chart shows the constantly increasing inflation rates in the U. S. economy. In March, the average cost of goods and services basket advanced 0. 3 percent (MERIC, 2008). These trends indicate the inability of the Federal Reserve to cope with the inflation problem. Growing inflation requires that the Fed pushes up interest rates and slows down the economy, but as the Fed decreases interest rates to regulate particular markets, it puts the economy into a deeper recession. Oil price per barrel is usually counted on the basis of the OPEC or NMEX oil basket prices. At the beginning of 2008, the barrel of oil cost $90. 7; by the end of April, the price has already crossed the mark of $116 per barrel (WTRG Economics, 2008). The chart shows significant continuous increase of oil prices. During 2007, the price of oil per barrel has nearly tripled. Inflation rates, unemployment rates, oil prices per barrel, and real GDP are the four interrelated economic indicators, which determine, at what stage of business cycle the U. S. economy stands. Business cycles impact all areas of economic development; the airline industry is not an exception. In many instances, airlines develop and act according to the basic economic laws. The state of real GDP and Consumer Price Index determine consumer capability to purchase tickets and choose convenient flights. The price of oil per barrel seriously increases airline industry costs, which the industry compensates for the account of more expensive tickets. The growing energy prices contribute into the CPI growth. The growing price of oil per barrel impacts unemployment: â€Å"on average, every time oil prices go up 10 percent, 150,000 Americans lose their jobs† (Eldad, 2007). It is stated that â€Å"the cycles of the airline market are often considered to be a response to fluctuations in the evolution of the GDP and to lie beyond the sphere of the industry’s influence† (Eldad, 2007). Unemployment does not significantly impact the airline industry. The United States has been able to keep unemployment rates at reasonable levels. Inflation rates directly impact the way the airline industry performs on the market. In general, inflation indicates the growth of all costs and expenditures within airline industry. Inflation means that energy prices grow, too. Traditionally, fuel and oil costs constituted 15 percent of the airline industry expenditures, but inflation and growing prices of oil per barrel have raised this index to 30 percent (Eldad, 2007). Due to continuous inflation growth and oil price increase, airlines annually lose up to $200 million (Eldad, 2007). These are the indicators of the economic recession. Economic recession is one of the five stages of business cycle. Since 2005, the airline industry has been experiencing serious economic losses and numerous business closures. The slight increase of real GDP in the last quarter of 2007 reveals promising trends which will hopefully help airlines cope with energy prices. The recession stage of the business cycle suggests that the U. S. economy has not yet reached the trough at the very bottom of its economic decline. This is why the airline industry should be prepared to facing even more serious economic difficulties. The current economic situation is more consistent with the classical economic conditions. The state is not involved into regulating inflation rates or oil prices per barrel. In the oil market, the state acts according to laissez-fair principles of classical economic theory, which promote free business choice and minimal state involvement into economic processes. Although the state regulates interest rates and seems to make everything possible to minimize the economic consequences of recession, its strategies are aimed at regulating particular markets and not the U. S. economy in general. The airline industry is given sufficient freedom for taking economic decisions according to the changeable economic conditions in the U. S. Conclusion The current state of real GDP, inflation rates, oil price per barrel, and unemployment rates form the picture of economic recession in the United States. The airline industry experiences significant economic losses. As the U. S. economy faces the recession stage of the business cycle, airlines should be prepared to even greater economic losses before the economy reaches the trough at the bottom of its economic decline.

Kachrus Three Circle Model Evaluation

Kachrus Three Circle Model Evaluation The Three-circle Model of World Englishes was developed by Kachru in 1985 and it remains one of the most influential models for grouping the varieties of English in the world (Mollin, 2006, p.41). Kachru (1985) described the spread of English in terms of three concentric circles: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle. These circles represent the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages (Kachru, 1985, p.12). Although Kachrus three-circle of English is still an important initial stepping stone for the division of Englishes, drawbacks and variations have been identified by several authors, including Kachru himself (Yoneoka, 2002). The Kachrus Three-circle Model will be introduced and evaluated in this paper. In the Kachrus Three-circle Model, the Inner Circle Kachrus model refers to the traditional bases of English, dominated by the mother-tongue varieties, where English acts as a first language (White, 1997). The countries involved in the Inner Circle include the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The varieties of English used here are said to be norm providing. The Outer Circle consists of the earlier phases of the spread of English in non-native settings, where the language has become part of a countrys chief institutions, and plays an important second language role in a multilingual setting (Rajadurai, 2005). Most of the countries included in the Outer Circle are former colonies of the UK or the USA, such as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Ghana, Kenya and others (Rajadurai, 2005). The English used in the outer circle is considered as norm-developing. The Expanding Circle refers to the territories where English is learnt as a foreign language. The territories do not have a h istory of colonization by members of the Inner Circle and institutional or social role. English is taught as a foreign language as the most useful vehicle of international communication (White, 1997). The countries in the Expanding Circle include China, Japan, Greece and Poland (Crsytal, 1997). The English used in the Expanding Circle is regarded as norm dependent. The Kachrus model is in a dynamic nature. According to Kachru (1985), dividing English speakers into Inner, Outer and Expanding circles is preferable to the traditional native, ESL and EFL labels which involve the dichotomy between native and nonnative speakers (Rajadurai, 2005). English native speakers are visually not privileged since they are not placed at the top of the Three-circle Model. However, the model is not sufficiently dynamic to reflect the reality of English use in the world. It still prefers the English native speakers in the inner circle. The limitations of the model will be discussed in the following. According to Patil (2006), the model assumes that the three circles represent linguistic reality perfectly. Kachru (1985) himself has noted that the concentric circles may be oversimplified and fuzzy areas exist. Some special cases like South Africa and Jamaica are difficult to be classified. As Kachru himself has acknowledged, the fact is that the categories are not necessarily mutually exclusive and grey areas exist between the circles (Rajadurai, 2005). Apart from the fuzzy classification between circles, Tripathi (1998) points out that there are no mechanisms to differentiate varieties within a circle. Therefore, Crystal (1997) suggests not defining the boundaries of Kachrus concentric circles in such absolute terms. Kachrus model describes the Inner Circle, Outer Circle and Expanding Circle as norm-providing, norm-developing and norm-dependent. However, Crystal (1995) comments that the model cannot represent the reality of international English use because the reality is often not so clear-cut. Crystal wonders it is difficult to distinguish whether the Outer Circle looks to Inner Circle norms or it creates its own norms. Norms development is also possible in the Expanding Circle. The Three-circle Model fails to consider the growth of English in the world. It cannot account for the growing use of English, namely English as a lingua franca between speakers who do not share a first language (Mollin, 2006, p.41-42). English is now overwhelmingly widespread in international settings. It is the language choice in international organizations, companies as well as academic world (Katzner, 2002, p.39). It is also commonly used in the domains of the internet, international mass media and entertainment (Phillipson 1992). Crystal (1997, p.22) states that the speed with which a global language scenario has arisen is truly remarkable. The so called Expanding Circle of foreign language speakers included more than 750 million EFL speakers in 1997, compared to 375 million first language speakers and 375 million second language speakers. It is important to point out that the number of English users is developing at a faster rate as a language of international communication than as a language of intranational communication (Thesis, 2009). International communicat ion has become a common phenomenon between the circles and the increased mobility of people has made personal relationships across language borders (Thesis, 2009). Kachrus concentric circles seem to acknowledge diversity but little commonality across Englishes, describing the English varieties as separate (Burt, 2005). Due to the increasing international communication, the distinction between the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle becomes fuzzy and cannot account for the growing use of English in todays world. In the Kachrus model, the Expanding Circle refers to the territories where English is learnt as a foreign language. However, because of the growth of English, the language has become a necessity in todays world; English is not only learnt in the expanding circle, or even mostly, to enable communication with the Inner and Outer Circles (Patil, 2006). The importance of English is keep increasing in the world, especially in the Expanding Circle. As a result, learning English can no longer be seen as learning a foreign language in the traditional sense (Patil, 2006). Graddol (2006) has even argued that knowing English has become a basic skill in the global world. Nunan shares the same feeling with Graddol that knowing English makes more sense than simply learning English for EFL or ESL (Robertson, 2005). The functions of English are highly restricted in the Expanding Circle which can not reflect the actual use of English. Englishes in the Expanding Circle are seen as far removed from the Inner Circle core and marginalized. As the description of the Expanding Circle mentioned in Kachru (1992), The performance varieties of English have a highly restricted functional range in specific contexts; for example, those of tourism, commerce, and other international transactions. In fact, the range of English use in the Expanding Circle has become much wider due to the increasing growth of English. There is much more use of English nowadays in some countries of the expanding circle, where it is only a foreign language à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, than in some of the countries where it has traditionally held a special place (Crystal, 1997, p. 56). For example, although Egyptian English is classified in the Expanding Circle, there are a number of Egyptian contexts, such as medicine, higher education, the sci ences, or in tourism, which extend limbs into the Outer circle as well. (Yoneoka, 2002). The above example shows that the functions of Expanding Circle English today are not as restricted as Karchru mentioned. It can be observed that there is a merging of the Outer and Expanding Circles. The Three-circle Model implies that the Outer Circle cannot merge into the Inner Circle (Patil, 2006). However, sometimes it is difficult to define which one owns English as the first language and which one knows English as a second language. There are several countries where population movement, language loss, divergent language attitudes, and massive shifts in language use have made it difficult to answer the question: What is your first language?(Crystal, 1995, p. 363). Therefore, not only the classification between the Outer and Expanding Circles, that between Inner Circle and Outer Circles can also be tough. Some researchers suggest that Kachrus Three-circle Model should not base the classification of English speakers on national identity. National identity should not be a basis of classification of speakers of an international language. The more English becomes an international language, the more the division of its speakers into native and nonnative becomes inconsistent. (Brutt-Griffler and Samimy, 2001, p.104). Refer to this problem; Rajadurai (2005) has presented a different Three-Circle Model: While acknowledging the fuzzy distinctions between circles, in principle, the inner circle could comprise all users who are proficient in English and able to instinctively codeswitch between international and national or regional varieties to communicate in the most appropriate way. The second circle could consist of speakers who are proficient only in regional varieties, i.e. native and nonnative speakers with restricted intranational proficiency, while the outer circle could be made up of le arners of the language. Although English native speakers visually do not have higher hierarchy since they are not placed at the top of the Three-circle Model, it still prefers the English native speakers in the inner circle. As Burt (2005) comments, the Inner Circle clearly establishes at the top of the hierarchy. The idea that English is someones second language implies that it is someone elses first language. It gives the impression that English belongs to the native speaker who owns it as his first language. Kachru has acknowledged that it is almost unavoidable that anyone would take second as less worthy (Kachru and Nelson, 1996, p.79). In order to ease the problem, Yano (2001, p.122-123) has suggested that the ENL and ESL circles can merge into a single ENL circle with two sets of varieties: genetic and functional ENL. To conclude, Kachru Three-Circle model has limitations to reflect the reality of English use. The model is oversimplified and the classification among the three circles is fuzzy. In fact, the three varieties are mutually inclusive and grey areas exist. Due to the rapid growth of English, English status has increased in the Expanding Circle. English is not only learnt but more widely used in different settings. The classification between the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle becomes difficult. Therefore, the Three-circle Model should be modified to a more dynamic one to represent the actual use of English. Instead of categorizing the English speakers based on national identity, the revised model can be classified in terms of the English proficiency in international and regional varieties. More research related to World Englishes should also be conducted in the future to meet the rapid growth of English.

Good Use - The Customer is Always Right Essay -- Teaching Writing Educ

Good Use - The Customer is Always Right Does "I respectfully submit my resignation," convey the same meaning as, "I quit?" Certainly the tone of voice is different, but do these two phrases say the same thing? Which one is correct? In answering these questions we are making decisions about what constitutes good use in writing techniques. According to Orwell's Advice for Writing, one should, "Never use a long word where a short one will do." Following this line of thinking one would logically conclude that "I quit," a phrase of only five characters in length, is by far the better choice when comparing it to the thirty-two character alternative, "I respectfully submit my resignation." However, there may just be a bit more to proper usage in writing than choosing between longer and shorter words/phrases of the same meaning. In fact, the most important aspect of usage may just be the audience for which the writing is intended. (in other words, it's not the size that counts, it's whose using it!) For example, J. D. Thomas point s out that in technical writing, "Efficient communication depends upon a 'middle' range..." or writing that will be utilized by people with varied educational/technical backgrounds. Technicians use jargon that may not be understood by an otherwise well educated person. Therefore, if a technician wants to write a paper explaining some revolutionary way of manufacturing to a potential investor, she's going to have to adjust her writing to suit her audience so as to successfully convey her message. However, the same paper would have to be amended to include specific, object-oriented terminology if it were targeted towards the technician's peers. Another important aspect of good usage, according to T. Cliffo... ... audience is the determining factor of good use. The two phrases mentioned earlier, "I quit," and "I respectfully submit my resignation," illustrate the power the audience has in writing. Without knowing for whom the phrases are intended, the author can't make a decision between the two. "I quit," is short and to the point, but who is the writer talking to? Will the abrupt nature of the phrase cause tension or will the audience simply ignore it as insignificant babble? If it's an employer that she is expecting a good reference from, perhaps, "I respectfully submit my resignation," is the way to go. On the other hand, if shock value is the intent of the writer, an entire realm of discontinued-employment phrases may become appropriate. Metaphorically speaking, the audience is the customer in the department store of writing styles, and the customer is always right.

Weapons of the Middle Ages :: History

Weapons of the Middle Ages Have you ever wondered what kinds of weapons were used in the middle ages? Or have you wondered how they used to slash and bash through the heavily armored knights while being attacked by flying arrows by the longbowman? Well here are the answers There were a wide variety of weapons in the middle ages, one of which was the club. The club was mainly used to crush bones or fracture them. It was made of a light wood with a metal tip on the end and usually had spikes on them to inflict more damage. The club is the first melee weapon ever made and started in the Stone Age to kill deer or wild boar. As ages went by the club became less effective. After about 1400 A.D. the club was very rare to find in battle. What was interesting about the club is that it could easily be changed into a short-handled ax. All they had to do was either cut or take off the tip of the club and attach a sharp blade. The reason they sometimes changed the club into a short-handled ax, was because it could be throw n easily and inflict some pain, where the club when thrown, it was hard to throw and it inflicted little pain and damage. Another very useful weapon was the spear. The spear was a skirmisher’s best friend. A skirmisher was a soldier that carried around a bag full of spears. To keep from giving too much weight, they made the spear for the skirmishers with very lightweight wood, and a small pointy spearhead. The skirmisher’s job was to take the spears and throw them at a long range. The difference between a bow and arrow and a spear was that the spear could easily be turned into a melee weapon. In fact, when a skirmisher had only one spear left, he took the spear, left the bag, and went melee style and went into the battle. The first spear was simply a sharpened rock tied onto a long stick, which was in the Stone Age, and wasn’t used for killing people; it was used to kill animals for food, usually. Probably the most common weapon, was the sword. All kinds of swords, the standard sword, which was just a regular sword, the dagger, or knife, yes it was a type of sword, mainly a backup sword used if a soldier’s weapon was dropped, and the great sword, which was a huge sword that can only be used in control if the soldier used two hands.

Bill of Rights and Amendments Paper Essay

The United States Constitution was ratified and made law September 17, 1789. For Americas yet-to-be history the Framers knew the Constitution had to have a way to grow and change with the people, and their needs. This paper will cover the amendment process, the need for the Bill of Rights, how the Bill of Rights has affected America, what the Bill of Rights have granted American’s, discuss the later amendments, and what effect the later amendments have had. Amendments In order for America to continue to grow and change with the needs of the people, the Constitution was created with an amendment process in Article V. Article V gives two ways in which the Constitution can be amended; first is by a two-thirds vote from both the House or Representatives and the Senate, it must be ratified by 38 of the50 states. To date this is the only method that has been used. Second method is to hold a Convention called for the sole purpose of amending and two-thirds of the state legislatures must attend. Then it must be ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures. The Constitution The Framers of the Constitution were specifically concerned with creating a charter for a working government, of the people, for the people, but the Constitution covered very few rights for the American citizen. During the secret convention of 1787,there was some opposition to the Constitution because it was viewed as not  having enough protections for Americas’ rights. â€Å"A bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth† Jefferson, T (1787). Including an agreement to add immediately the Bill of Rights, gave way for the Constitution to be ratified. James Madison argued that a declaration of rights for the American people would help the judiciary branch protect individual rights. â€Å"They have given the right of man and fair discussion, and explained them in so clear and forcible manner as cannot fail to make a lasting impression† Washington, G. (1791). The Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights has affected countless court cases on individual rights. Communities and states can become involved to push moral or financial standards on others, and the Bill of Rights stops neighbors, states, and the federal government from infringing on the rights of an individual. The Bill of Rights protects the civil liberties that Americans are granted with citizenship, but it also gives America something to strive to be. The Bill of Rights is an ideal, a powerful statement of what America is trying to be. Amendments beyond the Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights accounts for amendments one through ten. Each of the additional 17 amendments has come about because of clarification needed for the original mechanics of the first three articles or to ensure civil rights. Amendments 11,16, and 24 are for clarifications of Article III. Amendments 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, 26, and 27are for further clarification of Articles I and II. Amendment 23 is further clarification of Article I. Only six amendments are to provide or clarify civil rights, those are13, 14, 15, 18, 19, and 21. Amendment 18 is the only one ever repealed. As we take a deeper look at amendments 13,14, and 15 they were also known as the Reconstruction Amendments. After the Civil War in early 1865 amendment 13 to abolish slavery, was found to be lacking in clarification of what happened to the freed slaves, and the 14th amendment was proposed in 1866, to allow all slaves citizenship. After this the rights for freed Black men came into question, the 15th amendment was created, that race would not bar anyone from the right to vote. Effects of the Constitutional Amendments The amendments beyond the Bill of Rights have each come when needed for the political and changing human rights that America has faced in the past 224 years. Rights have been granted; laws passed and recalled when they were no longer applicable for the climate of what Americans wanted for themselves. Clarifications for the running of the United States government, what should happen in case of emergencies and representation of all citizens have come from a government for the people, by the people. Conclusion Article V of the United States Constitution provides for America to change. The Framers knew that a simple document that was black and white could not govern a people for all time. Our Constitution is alive; it grows with America, and allows changes to be made allowing it stay relevant

Bio-Psychosocial Model of Health and Illness

BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS INTRODUCTION The medical model has been the predominant approach used by physicians in diagnosing and management of diseases and illness in most Western countries. The biomedical model of illness and healing focuses on purely biological factors, and excludes psychological, environmental, and social influences. According to this model, good health is the freedom from pain, disease, or defect. It focuses on physical processes that affect health, such as the biochemistry, physiology, and pathology of a condition.It does not account for social or psychological factors that could have a role in the illness. In this model, each illness has one underlying cause, and once that cause is removed, the patient will be healthy again, (Alloy, Jaconson,& Acocella,(1999). The bio-psychosocial model of understanding disease process arose from the context of changing conceptualisations of mind and body and the emergence of new fields of enquiry, including h ealth psychology, medical sociology, behavioural medicine and psychoneuroimmunology, Barlow,D.H. & Durand V. M. (1999). According to Engel (1977, 1980), human beings are complex systems and illness can be caused by a multitude of factors, not just a single factor such as a virus or bacteria. This is an attempts to move away from a simple linear model of health, to assess the effects of the combination of factors involved in illness, that is; biological (for example, virus & genes), psychological (for example, stress, behaviours, & beliefs) and social/environmental (for example, employment & neighbourhood).Engel (1977) argued that the best and most effective way of dealing with disease and illness is by the application of the three approaches that are related to human health. According to him the three interact in a very complex way and all play a significant role in human functioning in the context of disease and illness. Health is therefore better understood and managed when the th ree approaches are combined rather than handling it from a purely biomedical perspective.The biopsychosocial model of understanding diseases and illnesses is also similar to the World Health Organization’s definition of health ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO, 1946). BIOMEDICAL MODEL The biological model was the leading approach of understanding diseases and illnesses since the 19th century. It gained strength from researches in physiology and medicine that led in identification of infectious agents that cause diseases,(Maher & Maher,1985). It evolved from a Greek physician Galen’s germ theory concept of pathogens in 200 AD.He declared pathogens as the sole disease causing agents. The medical model therefore aimed at doing researches to identify all pathogens that caused diseases for the purpose of providing the right diagnoses for different diseases. For the proponents of this model, every illness is a symptom of a particular disease which has also been caused by a particular pathogen. The model also later focused on normalizing genetic related abnormalities and injuries. The model therefore focused on the physical processes such as the pathology, the biochemistry and physiology of disease and illnesses (Hoeksema, 2001).The biomedical model uses the traditional reductionist biomedical model of medicine that presumes that every disease process can be explained in terms of an underlying deviation from the normal function such as a pathogen, genetic or developmental abnormality or injury,(Sarno:1998). This argument presumes that illness is always due to abnormalities in the body's working systems. It is the basis of modern Western medical practice. It works on the theory that every bodily malfunction has an identifiable and diagnosable physiological cause that can also be managed or treated using the conventional medicine.The biomedical model tends to t ake a curative approach to illness (Price,1978). According to Sarason & Sarason, (2005). Biomedical approach focuses its attention on physical symptoms and therefore the normal physical state is a state of being whole and without any physical, mental disease and free from any pain, so that all the parts of the body can carry on their proper functions fully. According to Alloy, Jaconson, and Acocella (1999), the biomedical model compares abnormal behavior to any other disease and therefore has specific causes and specific set of symptoms.Therefore the medical model also implies that the abnormal behaviour is biogenic, that is, it results from a malfunction within the body especially the brain. This suggests that psychological symptoms are due to structural abnormalities in the brain’s neurotransmitter systems, or faulty genes. Biogenic theories of abnormal behavior have been in existence since ancient times. In the middle ages and the renaissance, they coexisted with supernatu ral theory which believed that abnormal behavior was caused by God or more often by the devil (Hoeksema, 2001).In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, religious explanations were gradually replaced by biological explanations. The newly dominant medical approach was soon strengthened by a series of important breakthroughs which was done through biomedical researches and therefore several previously unexplained behavior patterns were found to result from brain pathologies((Hoeksema, 2001). Such discoveries strengthened greatly the biogenic theory of abnormal behavior. Medicine was therefore increasingly assumed would ultimately discover the cure for ‘madness’ as it was commonly called.On this assumption, any case of mental abnormality was referred to a medical professional, (Alloy, Jaconson, Acocella,(1999). According to the proponent of this model, the abnormal behavior should best be handled by physicians in hospitals and by means of drugs and that the whole p roblem of deviant behavior should be conceptualized in medical terms such as symptoms, syndromes, pathology, mental illness, patient, diagnosis, treatment and cure,(Price,1978). EVALUATION OF THE MEDICAL MODEL STRENGTHS:The medical model introduced objectivity in the understanding and management of diseases and illnesses by applying scientific methods of research, diagnosis and treatment. The model has also given insight into the causes of some conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, an organic condition causing confusion in the elderly, (Alloy, Jaconson, Acocella, (1999). According to Sarason, & Sarason (2005), by use of the biological model, treatment is quick and, relative to alternatives, and sometimes cheap and easy to administer.It has proved to be effective in controlling serious mental illnesses like schizophrenia allowing patients who would otherwise have to remain in hospital rather than to live at home. Finally the sickness label has reduced the fear of those with mental disorders. This is because historically, they were thought to be possessed by evil spirits or the devil, majority of them especially women, who were burned as witches, (Maher, & Maher: 1985). CRITICISMS OF BIOMEDICAL MODEL One of the critics of biomedical model of mental illness was Thomas Szasz.In his book â€Å"The Myth of the Mental Illness’ (Szasz, 1961), he postulated the so called most of what was commonly referred to as mental illnesses were merely ‘problems in living’. According to him the whole concept of mental illness was a myth as it could not withstand the laid down biomedical diagnostic procedures. For Szasz, psychiatrists over-relied on social criteria rather than medical standardized procedures to diagnose mental disorders. He argued that mental assessment relied on the patient’s coping skills for example, with families, friends and social responsibilities to determine a disorder ((Szasz, 1961).Szasz argued that psychiatric diagnosis, was unlike physical diagnosis all about social judgment. According to Szasz, the ‘sick’ label also deprives people of the responsibility for their behavior and relegates them to a passive role that makes it hard for them to return to the normal behavior. After many years in the biomedical research, evidence shows there still remained many patterns of abnormal behavior for which no medical causality was identified, yet the biomedical researchers were confident that such causes were eventually to be found,(Price,1978).Biomedical model does not take into account the role of social factors or individual subjectivity in diagnosis and treatment of diseases and illnesses. The model overlooks the fact that the diagnosis (that will affect treatment of the patient) is a result of negotiation between the doctor and the patient, (Annandale,1998). Using reductionism method of both research and diagnosis in the biomedical model, the model attempts to reduce the explanations of health an d illness to the smallest possible factors.Nevertheless human beings and ill-health are not this simple. There may be a lot of different causes from social to psychological to genetic. The biomedical model is a single-factor and therefore looks for the cause, rather than a range of contributory factors, (Alloy, Jaconson, Acocella, 1999). Using biomedical model, there lacks the mind-body distinction. The mind and body are considered separately and they do not affect one another, which research has proved is not the case. Health is traditionally equated to the absence of disease.A lack of a fundamental pathology was thought to define one's health as good, whereas biologically driven pathogens and conditions would render an individual with poor health and the label â€Å"diseased†. However, such a narrow scope on health limited our understanding of wellbeing, thwarted our treatments efforts, and perhaps more importantly, suppressed preventive measures, (Sarno, 1998). PSYCHOLOGIC AL MODELS OF UNDERSTANDING TO DISEASE PROCESSES In contrast to the medical model, thoughts, feelings and behaviours affect our health and well-being.Recognition of the importance of these influences on health and disease is consistent with evolving conceptions of the interactions between the mind and the body and represents a significant change in medicine and the life sciences,( Baum & Posluszny, 1999). There are psychological theories that argues that the mind prays a pivotal role in matters related to diseases and illnesses. According such theories, disturbed or abnormal behavior for example may be explained physiologically and also psychologically.Conditions like Schiszophrenia and depression have both physiological and psychological explanations of causality and management. Some of the psychological perspectives of that deal with health and well-being of human beings are; The Psychodynamic Perspective: Psychodynamic approach to abnormal behaviour assumes that abnormal behavior arises or originates from unconscious unresolved psychological conflicts. According to Sigmund Freud(1925) behaviour is motivated by internal or psychological forces. Abnormality according to him is caused by an imbalance in the internal forces that motivate behaviour.He believed that mental illness arises from unresolved conscious conflicts, which usually occur in early childhood According to Freud, the unconscious forms about 90% of the human mind, and the remaining 10% is conscious. People are not able to access the contents of their own unconscious mind. Traumatic memories, inappropriate desires, and unresolved conflicts are buried in the unconscious mind by ego defense mechanisms such as repression. The contents of the unconscious mind for example, a childhood trauma, may still influence behaviour and this can lead to abnormality (Santrock,2007).According to psychodynamic proponents, another source of abnormality arises from extremes either from id or from the superego; Weak eg o: According to psychodynamics, the well adjusted people have a strong ego, that is, they able to cope with the demands of both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times. If, however, the ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the personality leading to deviant behavior and neurotism.Unchecked id impulses: Freud argued that, if id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-destructive and immoral behaviour. This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic behaviour in adulthood. Too powerful superego: According to Freund, a superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and inflexible in its moral values, will restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to him this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as phobias and obses sions.The Behaviourist Perspective This approach believes that behavior is learned based on reinforcement. Therefore it is sustained its consequences. Therefore the maladaptive behavior is learned through reward while it can also be relearned, (Slavin, 2003). The proponents of this model argues that deviant behavior can be managed through; Shaping: This involves guiding behavior toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success. Extinction: This approach involves removing reinforcers from previously learned behavior until the behavior disappears.Extinction burst: This process involves the increase in levels of behavior in the early stages of extinction. Positive reinforcement: This a technique of sustaining a desired behavior for example, applying praise after doing something desirable. Negative reinforcement: this is a technique of escaping from an unpleasant or a way of preventing unpleasant behavior from occurring. Punishment – consequences that weaken behavi or; punishment like reinforcement is in the eye of the receiver and the impact on behavior, (Slavin, 2003). Cognitive Theoretical Model:The cognitive perspective maintains that peoples’ way of interpreting situations determine their emotional and behavioral symptoms,(Hoeksema, 2001). Abnormal behavior is a product of negative or erroneous thinking and perception about oneself and of the environment. The proponents of this theory argue that the human being is not a passive organism, but is capable of processing information and comprehend the relationship between cause and effect. According to Beck (1921), maladaptive behavior may result from faulty or distorted interpretation of the reality.Therefore false or negative view of the world can easily lead to illness or abnormal behavior. For example, a negative view of oneself can lead to negative interpretation and negative expectations of the future. These negative belief systems and erroneous view of the world can lead to depre ssion, (Halligan,& Aylward,(Eds. ) 2006). Accord to Albert Ellis (1959), the goal of cognitive therapy is to help people change their irrational beliefs into rational beliefs. This is done by the therapist creating insights in a person’s mind through the process of disputing the client's irrational beliefs, (Santrock,2007).Humanist Model of Abnormal Behaviour According to the humanistic approach and existentialists theories, symptoms of abnormal behavior arise when people are not allowed to pursue their full potential and instead they are made or try to conform to others wishes,(Hoeksema,(2001). According to Carl Rogers, â€Å"The organism has one basic tendency and striving: to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism† (Rogers, 1951). According to him, abnormal behavior can be managed through working to remove incongruences, defense mechanisms, and developing positive personal self-regard.SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACHES Interpersonal theorists focus on the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping normal and abnormal behavior. Family system theorists suggests that abnormality among individual family members is the result of dysfunctional patterns of interaction within families that encourage and maintain psychopathology,(Hoeksema,2001). Social structural theorists on the other hand focus on the influence of structural factors in the environment and cultures on individuals’ behavior, (Barlow & Durand,1999). The Role of Psychological State in health mattersCurrent psychological researches especially in the field of Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), indicate that psychological state can influence the body immunity through the nervous system. The studies suggest that, not only can psychological state influence health, but beliefs may also influence health directly. In particular, research has focused on the capacity of psychological factors (such as mood, thought suppression and stress) to modify immune functioning,(Ogden, 2004). A ccording to various studies, positive mood is associated with better immune functioning, whereas negative mood is associated with poorer immune functioning (Stone et al. 1987). Humour appears to be particularly beneficial (Dillon, Minchoff & Baker, 1985). Certain coping styles (such as suppression and denial) may relate to illness onset and progression (e. g. Kune et al. , 1991), while thought expression through writing or disclosure groups may improve immune functioning,(Pennebaker et al. , 1988; Petrie, Booth & Pennebaker, 1998). Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser (1986) argued that stress causes a decrease in the hormones produced to fight carcinogens (factors that cause cancer) and repair DNA.In particular, cortisol decreases the number of active T cells, which can increase the rate of tumour development. This suggests that experiencing stress while being ill could exacerbate the illness through physiological changes. So if the illness itself is appraised as being stressful, this itself may be damaging to the chances of recovery. According to Ogden (2000), chronic illnesses, such as asthma, AIDS, cancer, coronary heart disease and multiple sclerosis, are another important areas of health that research indicates that psychological factors play important role.Coronary heart disease (CHD) for example, is caused by hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), which are narrowed by fatty deposits. This can result in angina (pain) or a heart attack (myocardial infarction). CHD is responsible for 33 per cent of deaths in men under 65 and 28 per cent of all deaths. It is the leading cause of death in the UK, killing 4300 men and 2721 women per million in 1992. It has been estimated that CHD cost the National Health Service in the UK about ? 390 million in 1985/86, (Ogden, 2000).Many risk factors for chronic heart disease which are modifiable have been identified, for example, smoking, alcohol, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, perceived work stress and high blood pressure. Acc ording to Friedman and Rosenman (1959,’78) type A behaviour is characterized by excessive competitiveness, vigour, energy, alertness, confidence, loud speaking, rapid speaking, tense clipped speech, impatience, hostility, interrupting, frequent use of the word ‘never’ and frequent use of the word ‘absolutely’, In the 1980s Karasek developed a job demand/job control model of stress.He proposed the ‘job demand control hypothesis’, whose aim was to reduce job strain. According to Karasek and Theorell, (1990), there are two aspects of job strain; job demands and job autonomy (which reflects the person’s control over the speed or the nature of decisions made within the job). Karasek’s hypothesis suggests that high job demands and low job autonomy predict CHD. He later in his included the concept of social support, which he defined in terms of emotional support (trust and social cohesion between co-workers) and instrumental socia l support (the provision of extra resources and assistance).All the above conditions involve in their therapy psychological related techniques that includes; exercises, behavior modifications and cognitive therapies. A Multi Perspective Approach to Disease and Illnesses The model recognizes four systems centered on the person; organs, the whole person, behaviour, and social role function. It also considers the four contextual factors that influence these systems, that is; personal factors, physical environment, social environment, and time.This model also draws attention to two important components of any holistic model of health, choice (free-will) and quality of life, (McKeown,1979), This approach advocates the importance of looking at health and human behavior from scientific, psychological and social cultural approach. According to this model abnormal behavior is therefore effectively dealt with from these three points of view. Psychologically the unobservable events of the mind , such as attitudes, memories, and desires are unquestionably involved in most of psychopathology(Alloy, Jacobson &acocella,1999).According to Ndetei(2006), Culture and religion also play an important role in the development and management of psychopathology. Over the last century, health behaviours have played an increasingly important role in health and illness. This relationship has been highlighted by McKeown’s book, The Role of Medicine (1979), which discusses the decline of infectious diseases in the nineteenth century, which forms the focus for medical sociology. It also highlights the increasing role of behavior in illness in the twentieth century.The commonly held view is that the decline in illnesses such as TB, measles, smallpox and whooping cough was related to the development of medical interventions such as chemotherapy and vaccinations. But McKeown showed that the decline in infectious diseases had already begun, before the development of medical interventions. He claimed that, looking back over the past three centuries, this decline is best understood in terms of social and environmental factors. McKeown also examined health and illness throughout the twentieth century.He argued that contemporary illness is caused by an individual’s own behaviours, such as whether they smoke, what they eat and how much exercise they take, and he suggested that good health was dependent on tackling these habits. It has been suggested that 50 per cent of mortality from the ten leading causes of death is due to behaviour. If this is correct, then behaviour and lifestyle have a potentially major effect on longevity. For example, Doll and Peto (1981) estimated that tobacco consumption accounts for 30 per cent of all cancer deaths, alcohol 3 per cent, diet 35 per cent, and reproductive and sexual behaviour 7 per cent.Approximately 75 per cent of all deaths due to cancer are related to behaviour. More specifically, lung cancer (the most common form) acco unts for 36 per cent of all cancer deaths in men and 15 per cent in women in the UK. It has been calculated that 90 per cent of all lung cancer mortality is attributable to cigarette smoking, which is also linked to other illnesses such as cancers of the bladder, pancreas, mouth, larynx and oesophagus, and to coronary heart disease.And bowel cancer, which accounts for 11 per cent of all cancer deaths in men and 14 per cent in women, appears to be linked to diets high in total fat, high in meat and low in fibre, Doll and Peto (1981). In summary The proponents of the biopsychosocial model argue that the biomedical model alone does not take into account all of the factors that have an impact on a patient's health. Biological issues, as well as psychological factors such as a patient's mood, occupation, intelligence, memory, level of education and perceptions are all considered when making a diagnosis.The biomedical approach may not, for example, take into account the role sociological factors like family, social class, or a patient's environment may have on causing a health condition, and thus offer little insight into how illness may be prevented. A patient who complains of symptoms that have no obvious objective cause might also be dismissed as not being ill, despite the very real effect those symptoms may have on the patient's daily life.The biopsychosocial model of understanding disease process accomplished a milestone that brought about a dramatic shift in focus from disease to health, recognizing that psychosocial factors (for example; beliefs, relationships, and stress) greatly impact recovery, the progression of and recuperation from illness and disease. While the traditional biomedical models of clinical medicine focused on pathophysiology and other biological approaches to disease, the biopsychosocial approach emphasize the importance of understanding human health and illness in their fullest contexts. CONCLUTION:This model recognizes human beings as co mplex systems and illness can be caused by a multitude of factors, not just a single factor such as a virus or bacteria. Biopsychosocial model therefore attempts to move away from a simple linear model of health and looks at the combination of factors involved in illness; biological (for example, a virus), psychological (for example, behaviours, beliefs) and social (for example, employment). Since in biopsychosocial model , illness is regarded as the result of a combination of factors, the individual is no longer simply seen as a passive victim of some external force, such as a virus.Acknowledging the role of behaviours such as smoking, diet, exercises and alcohol, for example, means that the individual may be held responsible for their health and illness. From this perspective, health and illness exist on a continuum. Rather than being either healthy or ill, individuals progress along a continuum from healthiness to illness and back again. The biopsychosocial model of understanding disease process maintains that the mind and body interact, and therefore it considers psychological factors as not only possible consequences of illness but as contributing to all the stages of health, from being healthy to being illness.Current Application of Biopsychosocial Model: The biopsychosocial model of illness seems to be a significant advance upon the biomedical model of illness. It has been used as the basis of a system for classification of various aspects of illnesses as found in various diagnostic tools for example, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM), and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases. The apply the biopsychosocial model of diagnosing diseases and illnesses and have therefore become the international criteria for mental illness.REFERENCES 1. Alloy, L. B. , Jaconson,N. S. , Acocella,J. (1999). Abnormal Psychology: Current Perspectives (8th. ed). Boston: Mcgraw-Hill . 2. Barlow,D. H. & Durand V. M. ,(1999). Abnormal Psy chology: An Integrative Aproach. Boston:Core Publishing House. 3. Baum, A. & Posluszny, M. D. ,(1999). Health psychology: Mapping biobehavioral contributions to health and illness. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 137–163. 4. Bruns D, Disorbio J. M. , (2006). Chronic Pain and Biopsychosocial Disorders. Practical Pain Management, March, volume 6, issue 2. 5. DiMatteo, M.R. , Haskard, K. 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